Sport

Hematocrit is a measure of the percentage of the volume of blood taken up by red blood cells (cells responsible for transporting oxygen around the body). It represents a useful value of the person's general state of health. Low values are indicative of an increase in plasma volume or a higher rate of destruction of red blood cells. The most frequent causes are anemia, haemorrhage, autoimmune processes, impaired bone marrow function, malnutrition and nutritional deficiencies (e.g. vitamin B deficiency), infection, overhydration, cirrhosis, chronic infection, kidney disease. Elevated values are a consequence of an increase in the number of red blood cells or a decrease in plasma volume. This condition can be caused by dehydration, heart disease, erythrocytosis, hypoxia, kidney and heart disease, shock, and burns. This type of analysis can be altered during pregnancy, by long periods at high altitudes, bleeding, transfusions and severe dehydration.

Sodium helps maintain the proper functioning of nerves and muscles and the body's water balance. Excessive and prolonged consumption of sodium can reduce the effectiveness with which it is disposed of, causing a progressive increase in water retention and consequently blood pressure. The body regulates the amount filtered by the kidneys through various hormones and through the sense of thirst. High sodium levels (hypernatremia) can be caused by excessive dietary sodium intake, dehydration, and severe burns. Higher levels can also be found in kidney failure, diabetes insipidus, hypothyroidism, and Cushing's syndrome. Low levels (hyponatremia) are seen following excessive water loss and consumption and water retention/oedema (rarely caused by reduced dietary intake). Hyponatremia may be due to diarrhea, profuse sweating, prolonged vomiting, diuretic therapy, kidney disease, liver cirrhosis, and nephrotic cirrhosis.

Potassium is an electrolyte that is essential for the proper functioning of the body, especially nerve, muscle and heart cells. It is introduced mainly through the diet and excreted in the urine. Circulating levels are closely correlated with sodium levels, inversely proportionally. Low levels (hypokalemia) can be caused by vomiting, diarrhea, folic acid deficiency, alcoholism, and malnutrition. Low values cause tachycardia and abnormalities in cardiac conduction, up to and including cardiac arrest. Elevated levels (hyperkalemia) can be caused by end-stage renal failure, hemolysis, trauma, severe malnutrition, and metabolic acidosis dehydration. Symptoms caused by hyperkalemia are mental confusion, weakness, weakness of the respiratory muscles, flaccid paralysis of the limbs, bradycardia, and cardiac arrest.

Calcium is the main mineral in the human body. Most of the calcium is stored in the bones to which it gives stability. The remaining calcium supports several vital functions, including muscle contraction, nerve transmission, and blood clotting. Calcium requirements vary depending on age and certain stages of life, such as pregnancy or breastfeeding. A calcium deficiency can cause a variety of symptoms, from tingling in the fingers to serious bone problems such as osteoporosis. An excess of calcium can also cause health problems, including constipation, kidney problems, and impaired absorption of iron and zinc.

C-reactive protein (CRP) is an acute phase protein, produced by the liver and released, within a few hours, under inflammatory conditions. For this reason, it is a non-specific marker of inflammation. In fact, an increase in it is observed following trauma, autoimmune diseases, infection and heart attack. In some cases, an increase in CRP levels, even hundreds of times, may precede fever, aches or other clinical indicators. C-reactive protein can also be used to monitor people with chronic inflammatory diseases to determine a possible exacerbation or to verify the effectiveness of the therapy instituted.

Phosphorus is an important mineral for the body, largely stored in the bones. It is not only important for bones, but also for many other functions in the body, such as energy production and DNA. A phosphorus deficiency can lead to bone problems such as osteoporosis, especially in adults. Low levels of phosphorus in the blood can also cause various symptoms, including bone pain and neurological problems.

Magnesium is an important mineral that is mainly stored in the body's cells. It is involved in many vital processes, including the production of fat molecules (lipids), proteins, and the building blocks of DNA (nucleic acids). Magnesium supports muscle and nerve function and is essential for bone health. A deficiency can affect the metabolism of other important minerals such as calcium, sodium, and potassium and lead to symptoms such as muscle weakness and heart problems.

GOT (or ASAT) and GPT (or ALAT) are transaminases that are particularly present in the liver and only in trace amounts in the blood. In the case of organ damage, their levels in the circulation increase significantly. Under physiological conditions, GPT levels are lower than GOT while in conditions of liver damage this ratio is reversed (with the exception of diseases caused by alcohol abuse, cirrhosis and cancers). Elevated levels of GOT in the presence of normal levels of GPT indicate a normal liver and damage to a different organ or hemolysis. GPT is mainly present in liver cells and is therefore more associated with liver damage in the event of a considerable increase. During viral hepatitis or other liver diseases, blood levels of GPT increase even before clinical signs and symptoms of the disease appear.

GGT (Gamma GT or gammaglutamyl transferase) is an enzyme located mainly in the kidneys, liver and pancreatic cells. The presence in the bloodstream seems to be predominantly related to the hepatobiliary system. For this reason, elevated levels are typically the consequence of liver damage or obstruction of the bile ducts. It is a very sensitive marker but not particularly specific. High values are found in the presence of cholangitis, cholecystitis, cholelithiasis, hepatitis, liver disease, cirrhosis, heart attack and tumor pathologies affecting the liver, pancreas and kidney. Low levels are not clinically relevant.

LDH (lactate dehydrogenase) is an enzyme found in almost all cells of the body but particularly concentrated in the liver, heart, pancreas, kidneys, muscles, brain and white and red blood cells. Its function is to intervene in the process of transforming sugar into energy that can be used by the cell. Under physiological conditions, the levels of free LDH in the blood are low while they increase in case of cellular damage as a result of its release. High levels typically indicate tissue damage; There is an increase in damage at the beginning, a peak after a certain period and a decrease thereafter. By also measuring individual isoenzymes, it is possible to obtain information about the cells affected by the damage. Elevated levels are seen during stroke, heart attack, muscle inflammation, hemolytic anemia, pernicious anemia, infectious mononucleosis, meningitis, encephalitis, HIV, intestinal infarction, liver disease, pancreatitis, bone fractures, and several types of cancer. Low values are usually not of clinical importance.

Bilirubin is a yellowish pigment produced as a waste substance by the normal breakdown of hemoglobin (a protein found in red blood cells). Its elimination, through passage into the liver, occurs mostly in the faeces through the bile and only in small quantities through the urine. Before reaching the liver, bilirubin is called "unconjugated" or indirect. After binding to albumin, it is transported through the bloodstream to the liver. Here it is combined with glucoronic acid to form "conjugated" or direct bilirubin. This form, through bile, reaches the colon where it is converted back into an indirect form and then eliminated from the body. Elevated bilirubin levels may indicate liver problems (hepatitis, cirrhosis, drug reaction, bile duct obstruction, cancer) or faster than normal hemolysis. High values are also observed in Gilbert's syndrome, where there is an enzymatic alteration in one of the bilirubin transformation processes. Very high concentrations cause the development of jaundice, yellowish discoloration of the skin. Strenuous exercise and pregnancy can cause an increase in values.

Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) is an enzyme found in several tissues of the body, particularly abundant in the bones and liver. ALP, produced by osteoblasts, has a dual role in the mineralization process, increasing the local concentration of inorganic phosphate (mineralization promoter) on the one hand and decreasing the concentration of extracellular pyrophosphate (mineralization inhibitor) on the other. Bone alkaline phosphatase values reflect increased bone turnover associated with remodeling for aging, menopause, and several conditions that affect bone metabolism.

Too much uric acid can cause gout, kidney stones, cardiovascular disease, and other problems. Risk factors for elevated uric acid levels include obesity, a diet rich in purines*, diabetes, diuretics, hypothyroidism, and alcohol consumption. A low-purine diet includes foods such as grains, dairy, fruits, and vegetables. * Purine-rich foods are foods that contain high amounts of purines. Purines are natural chemical compounds that are broken down in the body into uric acid.

Creatinine is a waste substance produced by muscle energy metabolism following the consumption of creatine. Creatinine measurement is used to estimate glomerular filtration rate, giving an indication of the subject's kidney function. An increase in the concentration of creatinine in the blood is a consequence of its lower elimination through the urine and therefore of an impairment of kidney function. The amount of creatinine produced by the body depends on its weight and muscle mass. Low creatinine values (hypocreatinine) are rare and may result from too little muscle mass, increased glomerular filtration rate, and pregnancy. Elevated values (hypercreatinine) are observed as a consequence of a decrease in glomerular filtration rate secondary to renal impairment.

The total protein assay measures the overall amount of protein in the blood. Almost always, albumin and globulins are also measured in addition to total protein. Abnormal protein values are interpreted in conjunction with other analyses in order to determine the cause. A low dosage of total protein can be an indicator of kidney and liver problems, alterations in protein absorption and digestion (malnutrition, celiac disease, IBD, ...), in case of hemorrhage, burns, dehydration and liver damage. On the other hand, high levels are found in cases of inflammatory states such as hepatitis, infections, inflammation, AIDS and multiple myeloma.

TSH is a hormone produced by a part of the brain called the pituitary gland that stimulates the thyroid to produce the hormones T3 and T4. T3 and T4 are important for our body and influence many functions, including energy metabolism and growth. If the amount of these hormones is too much or undertaken, problems such as weight changes, fatigue, and cardiac arrhythmia can occur. During pregnancy, it is especially important that thyroid hormones are in balance to ensure that intrauterine growth and development proceed in a healthy manner. A TSH level that is too high during pregnancy may indicate a thyroid problem and should be treated because it increases the risks for mother and baby. It is recommended to check TSH levels before and during pregnancy to ensure that they are in the correct range.

Ferritin is a protein that stores iron and directly indicates the amount of iron our body reserves. These reserves help us not to immediately manifest the symptoms of iron deficiency. However, if these reserves are too low and are not replenished for a long period of time, symptoms such as fatigue, weakness and paleness may appear. It is important to ensure sufficient iron stores to prevent anemia.

Lipases are a group of enzymes involved in lipid metabolism. The pancreas is the main source of lipase circulating in the blood. Following damage to the pancreas or obstruction of the pancreatic duct (cholestasis), an increase in the concentration of this enzyme in the blood may be observed. Very high levels typically indicate pancreatic damage. A more modest increase may be caused by diabetic ketoacidosis, cholecystitis, kidney failure, liver disease, biliary obstruction, intestinal obstruction, peritonitis, and pancreatic cancer.

Cholesterol is an important lipid that serves as a precursor to steroid hormones, bile acids, and vitamin D in the body. High levels of cholesterol in the blood increase the risk of cardiovascular disease and the formation of atheromas (atheroma formation refers to the formation of deposits that appear as plaques in the walls of the arteries). Food sources: Cholesterol is mainly found in foods of animal origin, such as egg yolks, offal, cured meats, and cheeses.

LDL is a means of transporting cholesterol in the blood. Too much LDL in the blood can cause deposits in the arteries and increase the risk of heart disease.

HDL is a "good" lipoprotein that transports cholesterol from the tissues to the liver, prevents deposits in blood vessels, protects LDL from oxidation and has an anti-inflammatory effect. This reduces cardiovascular risk.

Triglycerides are molecules formed by the combination of glycerol and fatty acids. High triglyceride levels increase the risk of cardiovascular disease and inflammatory conditions in the body. Factors such as obesity, a sedentary lifestyle, and an unhealthy diet can lead to increased triglyceride levels.

The MPV value represents the estimate of the average volume of platelets (or thrombocytes). An alteration of the bone marrow causes a reduction in platelet volume while, if the bone marrow is functional but the circulating platelets are few compared to the need, an increase in the size of the platelets is observed to try to compensate. Elevated values are associated with DIC, diabetes mellitus, rheumatic fever, hyperthyroidism, leukemia, SLE, heart valve disease, and chronic myeloproliferative diseases. Low levels are seen in cases of aplastic anemia, megaloblastic anemia, hypersplenism, IBD, and Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome. Higher levels are often found in people who are obese and have metabolic syndrome. Many studies have also shown an association between high MPV values and increased cardiovascular risk due to a tendency to platelet aggregation. The intake of omega-3 fatty acids can contribute to the reduction of the MPV value.

Erythrocytes, or red blood cells, are cells present in the blood whose function is to transport and distribute oxygen in all body districts and at the same time to collect carbonic anhydrite to be eliminated. They are cells with a particular biconcave disc shape, they do not have a nucleus and contain a protein that is fundamental for their function: hemoglobin. The amount of oxygen that is delivered to the tissues depends strictly on the number of red blood cells present and their efficiency in determining the exchange between oxygen and carbon anhydrite.

MCV, MCH, MCHC and RDW are the so-called "erythrocyte indices of the blood count". They provide information about the physical characteristics of red blood cells:

• MCV represents the average size of each red blood cell
• MCH represents an estimate of the average amount of hemoglobin per single red blood cell
• MCHC represents the average concentration of hemoglobin in the red blood cell
• RDW, or anisocytosis index (%), measures the amplitude of the erythrocyte volume curve, thus allowing an estimate of the presence of red blood cells of different sizes.

Basophils are part of the leukocytes (or white blood cells) and are also called "basophilic granulocytes" because of the granules present in their cytoplasm that are stained blue-violet with basic dyes, since they contain proteins of an acidic nature. They are cells of the immune system that intervene in the body's defense processes. The defense action against pathogens takes place mainly through the release of inflammation-mediating substances contained in their granules. They are most concentrated in the lungs, gastrointestinal tract, and skin connective tissue.

Eosinophils are part of the leukocytes (or white blood cells) and are also called "eosinophil granulocytes" due to the presence in their cytoplasm of granules capable of binding a reddish-orange substance called "eosin". As part of the immune system, eosinophils defend against parasites and helminths, are involved in allergic reactions, and release mediators during inflammatory processes and microbe infections.

Monocytes are cells belonging to white blood cells (leukocytes) and therefore represent a part of the immune system. In addition to intervening in the defense against pathogens (mostly bacterial infections), they are also useful in tissue repair and defense against parasites. Elevated levels of monocytes (monocytosis) are seen following infections, inflammatory conditions and inflammatory diseases (especially chronic) and cancer. Low levels (monocytopenia) are usually not significant, but if associated with alterations in other values they may indicate bone marrow disease and some forms of leukemia, as well as acute and severe infections. The value of monocytes can also be expressed as a percentage (monocytes%) of the total monocytes present in the blood sample.

Leukocytes, or white blood cells, are blood cells responsible for protecting the body and are one of the most important elements of the immune system. Leukocytes include eosinophilic granulocytes, basophilic granulocytes, lymphocytes and monocytes. Quantifying leukocytes in the blood and their percentage distribution in the various subpopulations allows us to obtain information about the health of the immune system and the entire body.

Lymphocytes are a heterogeneous group of cells belonging to white blood cells (leukocytes) and therefore represent a part of the immune system. They are divided into two broad categories: B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes. A high lymphocyte count (lymphocytosis) is often indicative of viral infections but can also be caused by bacterial infections, hepatitis, leukemia, oncological diseases and inflammatory bowel diseases. Low levels (lymphopenia) can be caused by leukemia, autoimmune diseases, sepsis, AIDS, aplastic anemia, kidney failure, stress and cancer conditions. Blood lymphocyte levels can be affected by chemotherapy and radiation therapy, cortisone drugs, immunosuppressive drugs, stress, and surgery. The value of lymphocytes can also be expressed as a percentage (lymphocytes%) of the total leukocytes present in the blood sample.

Neutrophils are a population of cells belonging to white blood cells (leukocytes) and therefore represent a part of the immune system. They are also known as "neutrophil granulocytes", as their granules do not bind any type of dye. They are activated to counteract bacterial infections or mycosis, through the mechanism of phagocytosis. The number of neutrophils in the blood varies greatly from one person to another. A high level of neutrophils in the blood (neutrophilia) is usually secondary to a bacterial or fungal infection or the presence of protozoa.

Thrombocytes, or platelets, are cell fragments whose function is to intervene in coagulation processes, initiating the formation of the clot. In fact, circulating platelets in active form have a series of elements on the membrane that allow adhesion to the wall of the damaged vessel, starting to form an initial containment structure. Platelets are involved in the processes of innate immunity, binding and mediating the destruction of pathogens. The production of thrombocytes is regulated by a substance, thrombopoietin, secreted by the liver and kidneys.